Ethics is one of the concepts that international relations study. It is a concept that is usually discussed when it comes to wars, famines, and embargo. It hasn't shaped international relations but widely focused on by it.
Significant historical events such as the rise of empires and the Peace of Westphalia have altered international relations in some respects, as have the Great Powers, World Wars, globalization and conflicts.

The society of nations justifiably felt threatened and, most would agree, with good cause after the nuclear proliferation, especially of North Korea and Iran.
The worldwide recession of 2008 changed international relations and relevant institutions. Attitudes changed markedly toward the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Sanctions put into place against Russia, Iran, and other states created further unsettling conditions. Migrants into Europe, particularly from Africa’s war-torn states, have placed European states in a difficult position regarding their acceptance of these migrants and the impact they may make on European cultures, societies, and economies. Populism and nationalism also pose their own sets of challenges, with nationalist leaders becoming more belligerent about protecting their sovereign nation-states.

Politics, law, morality, and economics overlap in many ways; to simply separate one area, such as politics, off from the others would be not only impractical but would not represent the way the world actually is. International Relations is truly an interdisciplinary field, taking in social sciences, history, law, and economics at the very least.

When the study of International Relations first began in modern times (1930s and forward), it was largely considered a theoretical discipline. The first two foundational volumes were, indeed, theoretically inclined: E.H. Carr’s The Twenty Years’ Crisis (1939) and Hans Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations (1948). These were formative in the development of the theory of realism, as had been the prior works of Thucydides (The Peloponnesian Wars, in the mid-300s BCE), Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651) and Niccolò Machiavelli (The Prince, 1532).

Liberal theory (idealism) was also formulated in the 16th century and forward. Thus, realism was not the sole theory International Relations scholars took up. Classical liberalism is a political philosophy and an ideology in which primary emphasis is placed on securing the freedoms of the individual by limiting the power of the government.

The positivist position views theory as constitutive: “the existence of a state can only begin with its formal or implied recognition by other states. The constitutive theory of recognition insists that only the positive act of recognition creates the new international legal personality” (Oxford Reference Online, 2017).

Analysis at the state level explores how the structure and operations of a government affect decisions and policies. The type of government matters (the continuum from liberal democracy to authoritarian state), as does the kind of situations the state faces (crisis versus non-crisis), the kinds of policies under consideration, and the impact the policies could have domestically and on interstate or international relations.

The hegemonic state system means that one or more very powerful states dominate the state system. They can constrain the actions of other states and set rules for the world. So, they have a direct effect on the external affairs of states.

Alliances: An alliance can be defined as “an agreement between two or more states to work together on mutual security issues. States enter such cooperative security arrangements to protect themselves against a common (or perceived) threat.

A political conflict is a difference regarding values relevant to a society, between at least two decisive and directly involved actors, being carried out using observable and interrelated conflict means that lie beyond established regulatory procedures and threaten a core state function or the order of international law, or hold out the prospect to do so. Political conflicts constitute a subtype of social conflict.

For as long as any state interacted with another in any politically significant manner, international relations were involved: relations between states. International relations encompass all sorts of interstate activities: trade, travel, war, peace, the environment, social interactions, religions, natural resources, diplomacy and many more exchanges of various types. The history of international relations began when two states interacted with one another. Four types of state systems evolved (the independent, hegemonic, imperial, and feudal). The correct answer is E.

The first university entirely dedicated to the study of International Relations was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies), which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats associated to the League of Nations. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 1928. In 1965, Glendon College and the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs were the first institutions in Canada to offer an undergraduate and a graduate program in international studies and affairs, respectively. The correct answe is A.

International Relations has come to explore, examine, and embrace important concepts and theories in scholarly pursuits since its formal inception. Part of this is driven, no doubt, by the ever-increasing number and complexity of changes and challenges the world faces. Several useful frameworks have been developed to address these issues. One of them is the levels of analysis approach, particularly useful in foreign policy matters. There are three of these analytical levels: the individual level, the state-level, and the system level. The correct answer is D.

The first level (the individual) attempts to highlight and understand how persons and their characteristics (alone or in groups) impact policy (part of the decision-making process). Individual level analysis is further broken down into factors that affect policy: cognitive, emotional, and psychological ones. Biological factors may also matter. Gender is another biopolitical facet. Finally, individual and group perceptions are very important. If a person is part of a group, other influences can come into play, such as “groupthink” and roles. the correct answer is A.

Sovereignty: “Supreme authority in a state. In any state sovereignty is vested in the institution, person, or body having the ultimate authority to impose law on everyone else in the state and the power to alter any pre-existing law. In international law, it is an essential aspect of sovereignty that all states should have supreme control over their internal affairs, subject to the recognized limitations imposed by international law. However, no state or international organization may intervene in matters that fall within the domestic jurisdiction of another state” The correct answer is A.

Three basic principles address potential solutions to uncooperative relations among countries: (1) dominance; (2) reciprocity; and (3) identity, according to Goldstein and Pevehouse.
In dominance, there is a hierarchy, with those at the top of the hierarchy controlling those below them. the correct answer is D.
Reciprocity, on the other hand, addresses the collective goods challenge by rewarding actions that contribute to the group good, and by punishing those behaviors that are simply self-interested.
Finally, identity means that states redefine their interests and make a sacrifice for the group possible.

Lasting about 45 years, from 1945 (the end of World War II) until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. This was a period of highest tensions between the Western bloc countries (primarily the United States) and the Eastern bloc (mainly the U.S.S.R. and states controlled by the Soviet Union). It was initially a political stand-off, but escalated. The two main actors sought to set up zones of control that included countries within their geographic reach. The correct answer is B.

The Fragile States Index (2015) ranked United Nations member-states on the following capabilities and characteristics, each valued at ten points for a total of 120:
Social Indicators:

• 
  Demographic Pressures
  


• 
  Refugees or Internally Displaced Persons
  


• 
  Group Grievance
  


• 
  Human Flight and Brain Drain
  

Economic Indicators:

• 
  Uneven Economic Development
  


• 
  Poverty and Economic Decline
  

Political and Military Indicators:

• 
  State Legitimacy
  


• 
  Public Services
  


• 
  Human Rights and Rule of Law
  


• 
  Security Apparatus
  


• 
  Factionalized Elites
  


• 
  External Intervention The correct answer is A.
  

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted by representatives with different legal and cultural backgrounds from all regions of the world, it set out for the first time fundamental human rights to be universally protected. The Declaration was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 during its 183rd plenary meeting.
Article 1 of the Declaration reads that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.” The correct answer is A.

International Law includes the basic, classic concepts of law in national legal systems -- status, property, obligation, and tort law. It also includes substantive law, procedure, process and remedies. International Law is rooted in acceptance by the nation states which constitute the international system.
The following are major substantive fields of international law:

• 
  International economic law
  


• 
  International security law
  


• 
  International criminal law
  


• 
  International environmental law
  


• 
  Diplomatic law
  


• 
  International humanitarian law or law of war.
  


• 
  International human rights law The correct answer is E.
  

On p. 4, There is a definition stating that "The discipline of International Relations is focused on a systematic understanding of how states behave", which says that only I is correct.

External debt is not mentioned at all.

Positivism is a position, not a theory and through which the liberal theory is viewed.

Biological factors may have an effect on the individual level of analysis and gender is considered as a biopolitical factor. Therefore, it has an effect. Besides, group perceptions are important since an individual belongs to a group and can easily be affected by the group.

I is incorrect and II is correct because Groupthink occurs when a group makes faulty decisions because group pressures leadto a deterioration of “mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment.”
III. is incorrect because Groups affected by groupthink tend to take irrational actions
IV & VA are correct because group is especially vulnerable to groupthink when its members are similar in background, when the group is insulated from outside opinions, and when there are no clear rules for decision making

• Analysis at the state level explores how the structure and operations of a government affect decisions and policies.

I. is correct because The type of government matters (the continuum from liberal democracy to authoritarian state),
II is correct because the kind of situations the state faces matters as well (crisis versus non-crisis),
III is correct because the kinds of policies under consideration are important because these policies can have a domestic or interstate or international impacts.
IV. is correct because how the bureaucracies (career political personnel and their offices) function can be significant.
V is correct because one cannot ignore the influences of interest groups and legislatures, either.

I. is correct because the question asked is what is the organization of authority?
II. is correct because the question asked is whether the international system anarchical or hierarchical?
IV. is correct because the question asked is whether it is a unipolar (with only one state as most powerful), bipolar (two great powers), or multipolar.
V. is correct because the question asked is whether there is a hegemon or there
are international organizations to which some states belong.
III. is not mentioned.

The hegemonic state system means that one
or more very powerful states dominate the state
system. They can constrain the actions of other
states and set rules for the world. ...Hegemons historically do not tend to
become involved in another state’s internal affairs.

The book says " Often these states fail because of interethnic conflict, a lack of desirable natural resources or other products for world markets, post-colonial issues (if they were once a colony of a great power), civil war, internal corruption, and the like.

These headings are given and explained under the section titled as Expanded Issues in International Relations.

The nature of conflict has changed; Large scale war is now improbable.

Migrants into Europe, rising populism,and nationalism pose serious challenges to EU

States are crucial in examining international relations.

Liberal theory of idealism consider individual's freedom important and favors limited state power

The type of government matters in the state level of analyisis

It is the USA which constrains the actions of other states and sets rules for the world

The concept of power, at its simplest form, can be considered as a state’s ability to control, or at least influence, other states or the outcome of events in the interstate relations. Two dimensions are important, internal and external. The internal dimension corresponds to the dictionary definition of power as a capacity for action. A state is powerful to the extent that it is insulated from outside influence or coercion in the formulation and implementation of policy.

The great bulk of terrorists are non-governmental actors

Greenpeace work in ecological issues

option E is not among those expectations

International relations as a distinct field of study began in Britain. International Relations emerged as a formal academic discipline in 1919, just after the end of World War I, with the founding of the first International Relations professorship: the Woodrow Wilson Chair at Aberystwyth, University of Wales (now Aberystwyth University), endowed by David Davies. Georgetown University’s Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest International Relations faculty in the United States, founded in 1919. In the early 1920s, the famed London School of Economics Department of International Relations was founded at the behest of Nobel Peace Prize winner Philip Noel-Baker: this was the first institute to offer a wide range of degrees in the field. This was rapidly followed by establishment of International Relations at universities in the United States and in Geneva, Switzerland. The creation of the posts of Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at the London School of Economics and at Oxford gave further impetus to the academic study of international relations. Furthermore, the International History department at the London School of Economics developed a focus on the history of International Relations in the early modern, colonial and Cold War periods. The first university entirely dedicated to the study of International Relations was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies), which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats associated to the League of Nations. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 1928. In 1965, Glendon College and the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs were the first institutions in Canada to offer an undergraduate and a graduate program in international studies and affairs, respectively.
As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is C. The statements in the option I “International relations as a distinct field of study began in Britain and International Relations emerged as a formal academic discipline in 1919 at Aberystwyth, University of Wales (now Aberystwyth University).”, in the option III “In the early 1920s, the famed London School of Economics Department of International Relations, the first institute to offer a wide range of degrees in the field, was founded.”, in the option V “The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 1928.” and in the option VI “In 1965, Glendon College and the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs were the first institutions in Canada to offer an undergraduate and a graduate program in international studies and affairs, respectively.” are correct. The statement in the option II “The University of Chicago’s Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest International Relations faculty in the United States, founded in 1919.” is not correct because of the fact that Georgetown University’s Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest International Relations faculty in the United States, founded in 1919. The statement in the option VI “The first university entirely dedicated to the study of International Relations was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies) which was founded in 1928.” is not correct, either. “The first university entirely dedicated to the study of International Relations was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies) which was founded in 1927.”

The frameworks and analyses of International Relations consider a range of concepts. Initial frameworks such as the three levels of analysis (individual, state and the international system) remain valuable; the three principles of cooperation also are valid. But the range of outcomes has altered, particularly regarding practice and policies.
There are important concepts such as alliances, cooperation, the collective goods problem, the clash of civilizations argument, socialism, terrorism, and the political spectrum. Power remains very important, as is the projection of that power. It has been argued the world is still affected by the former Cold War (1945 - 1999), and that therefore, so have international relations, especially between the United States and Russia, along with the former Soviet states.
Expanded issues in international relations include further development of specific theories, along with the addition of newer ones. International law is now a key element of relations between states and the overall international system. It arose from customary and conventional laws, many of them domestic. Issues of morality and ethics have moved from the philosophical arena to that of political ethics and morality. Humanitarian and humane concerns make up part of this discussion in IR.
International governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations are relative newcomers to International Relations. While the League of Nations was not maintained successfully, the United Nations was founded in 1945, immediately following World War II. The initial purpose of both was to avoid future wars like those that had just been experienced, in which tens of millions died and more millions faced ruined lives and lands. Global devastation from new weapon technology is a genuine concern today, and international organizations attempt to address these threats and others, even those from non-state actors such as paramilitaries, terrorists, nationalist groups, inter-ethnic rivalries and the like. The European Union has grown and expanded from its founding in 1948 to encompass many international issues, with even its own currency, the euro.
As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is B. The statements with regard to the scope and history of Internation Relations in the option I “Initial frameworks and analyses of International Relations such as the three levels of analysis (individual, state and the international system) remain valuable.”, in the option II “International law is now a key element of relations between states and the overall international system.” and in the option III “International governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations are relative newcomers to International Relations.” are correct. The statement in the option IV “While the League of Nations was not maintained successfully, the United Nations was founded in 1946, immediately following World War II.” is not correct due to the fact that “ While the League of Nations was not maintained successfully, the United Nations was founded in 1945, immediately following World War II.”. The statement in the option V “The European Union has grown and expanded from its founding in 1950 to encompass many international issues, with even its own currency, the euro.” is not correct, either because of the fact that “ The European Union has grown and expanded from its founding in 1948 to encompass many international issues, with even its own currency, the euro.”

The objects of study of International Relations have come to include relations between states; between states and non-state organizations; and between actors such as multi-national corporations, religious institutions, humanitarian assistance organizations; between states and intergovernmental organizations like the European Union and the United Nations, among others. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is E.

Recommendation for Correction
Page: Question Evaluation Form, the first question in the Envanter Takip Sistemi (ETS)_Answer options for the first question “Which objective is the question related to?”
Appraise the importance of expanded issues in 3 international relations
Appraise the importance of expanded issues in International Relations
Because of the broad swath of the subjects, there is an equally broad group of theories or models through which one can view them: there are theories regarding:

• The arms race


• International development and political economies


• Trade and markets


• Conflict management


• Peace studies


• Nationalism


• Feminism


• Political culture


• International cooperation


• Civilizational theories


• International law


• International organizations

As also understood from the list given, the correct answer is E. All of the fields in the options are among the fields which there are theories or models in International Relations regarding. Nearly every theory of International Relations pays service to the explanatory capabilities of history. It is in history one can locate many of the characteristics that International Relations addresses even today. Some of the earliest thinkers in international relations lived in BCE times, such as Thucydides, Plato, Aristotle, and others. Each era, century and decade offers some signs, traits or other markers that international theorists either have considered or still consider-or after such consideration, set aside.

When the study of International Relations first began in modern times (1930s and forward), it was largely considered a theoretical discipline. The first two foundational volumes were, indeed, theoretically inclined: E.H. Carr’s The Twenty Years’ Crisis (1939) and Hans Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations (1948). These were formative in the development of the theory of realism, as had been the prior works of Thucydides (The Peloponnesian Wars, in the mid-300s BCE), Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651) and Niccolò Machiavelli (The Prince, 1532). Realism focuses on how power contributes to a variety of political outcomes and to a state’s security, and by its assumptions, concludes there can be little security for any weak state (one with little power).
Both Carr and Morgenthau argued that the liberal internationalist worldview had been chiefly responsible for the crises of the inter-war years (between World War I and World War II) because that view ignored the ongoing struggle for power. Were a solution to be proposed to this focus of the international system (to ignore power accumulation and the struggles for security), it would be doomed to fail. The realist theories of Carr and Morgenthau also lacked the capacity to predict human behavior, according to those who critiqued them. Noam Chomsky, one of the more radical scholars, noted in 1994 that in international relations, ‘historical conditions are too varied and complex for anything that might be called ‘a theory’ to apply uniformly’ (quoted in Devetak, Burke, and George, 2011, 120).
As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is D. The statements with regard to the theory of realism in the option I “E.H. Carr’s The Twenty Years’ Crisis (1939) and Hans Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations (1948). were formative in the development of the theory of realism.”, in the option II “Realism focuses on how power contributes to a variety of political outcomes and to a state’s security, and by its assumptions, concludes there can be little security for any weak state (one with little power).”, in the option III “The prior works of Thucydides (The Peloponnesian Wars, in the mid-300s BCE), Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan, 1651) and Niccolò Machiavelli (The Prince, 1532) were also formative in the development of the theory of realism.” and in the option V “The realist theories of Carr and Morgenthau also lacked the capacity to predict human behavior, according to those who critiqued them.” are correct. The statement in the option IV “Both Machiavelli and Hobbes argued that the liberal internationalist worldview had been chiefly responsible for the crises of the inter-war years (between World War I and World War II) because that view ignored the ongoing struggle for power.” is not correct because of the fact that both Carr and Morgenthau, not Machiavelli and Hobbes argued that the liberal internationalist worldview had been chiefly responsible for the crises of the inter-war years (between World War I and World War II) because that view ignored the ongoing struggle for power.

Liberal theory (idealism) was also formulated in the 16th century and forward. Thus, realism was not the sole theory International Relations scholars took up. Classical liberalism is a political philosophy and an ideology in which primary emphasis is placed on securing the freedoms of the individual by limiting the power of the government. Classical liberalism is built on ideas that had already arisen by the end of the 18th century, such as selected concepts of Adam Smith, John Locke, Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo. Idealism promotes toleration, reason and progress, equality before the law, and an open economy. It suggests that states will search for long-term mutual gains instead of short-term individual gains-if their security and sovereignty are not significantly diminished or threatened. Idealism’s terms underlie liberal political thought.
As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is D. The statements in the options I, II, IV, V and VI are correct. The statement in the option III is not correct. Classical liberalism is built on ideas that had already arisen by the end of the 18th century, such as selected concepts of Adam Smith, John Locke, Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo.

Parsimony: economy of explanation in conformity with Occam’s razor. The scientific law of parsimony dictates that any example of human behavior should be interpreted at its simplest, most immediate level. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is B. Occam’s Razor: If there are two or more explanations for an occurrence, the simplest one is usually better. In other words, the more assumptions you must make, the more unlikely an explanation is. If one strips away all extraneous issues, what remains is likely true --no matter how implausible that may seem. One of the more famous fictional characters to apply Occam’s razor to solving his cases was Sherlock Holmes, created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
The explanations for the other terms in the options are as follows:
Analyzing the characteristics of individual leaders is another approach to individual-level analysis. This is idiosyncratic analysis: how did an individual’s personal traits influence or shape his or her decisions?
Interdependence began to be examined in earnest in the early 1970s. To many theorists of interdependence, the crude power politics of the cold war years appeared to be giving way to a more cooperative and rule-governed world. It is important to understand that the theorists of interdependence were not just talking about increased interconnectedness in a variety of issue areas. The shift was also qualitative. The world was changing. The realist view that states were independently pursuing their national interests did not seem to present an accurate picture of the way states acted under conditions of what Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye called “complex interdependence” (Griffiths and O’Callaghan, 2002, 157-158).
Groupthink: a term coined by social psychologist Irving Janis (1972). It occurs when a group makes faulty decisions because group pressures lead to a deterioration of “mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment.” Groups affected by groupthink ignore alternatives and tend to take irrational actions that dehumanize other groups. A group is especially vulnerable to groupthink when its members are similar in background, when the group is insulated from outside opinions, and when there are no clear rules for decision making (Janis, 1972, 9).

Some International Relations scholars suggest four levels of analysis: the individual level, the domestic level (the state), then the interstate level, and following that, the global level (Goldstein and Pevehouse, 2013, 16). Here we will consider the three major analytical levels.

1. The first level (the individual) attempts to highlight and understand how persons and their characteristics (alone or in groups) impact policy (part of the decision-making process). Individual level analysis is further broken down into factors that affect policy: cognitive, emotional, and psychological ones. Biological factors may also matter. Gender is another biopolitical facet. Finally, individual and group perceptions are very important. If a person is part of a group, other influences can come into play, such as “groupthink” and roles. Analyzing the characteristics of individual leaders is another approach to individual-level analysis. This is idiosyncratic analysis: how did an individual’s personal traits influence or shape his or her decisions? This can be very important because an individual’s characteristics “are crucial to the intentions, capabilities and strategies of a state” (Byman and Pollack, 2001, 111, in Rourke, 2008, 73-74). Many other politically relevant concepts enter into idiosyncratic individual analyses: personality, physical and mental health, ego and ambition, one’s political history and personal experiences, perceptions, and operational reality (this includes leaders’ worldviews). Leaders have formal and informal powers, and each has his or her own leadership capabilities -- a group of characteristics relevant to a chief executive’s authority (Rourke, 2008, 76 and 82).
2. Analysis at the state level explores how the structure and operations of a government affect decisions and policies. The type of government matters (the continuum from liberal democracy to authoritarian state), as does the kind of situations the state faces (crisis versus non-crisis), the kinds of policies under consideration, and the impact the policies could have domestically and on interstate or international relations. How the bureaucracies (career political personnel and their offices) function can be significant. One cannot ignore the influences of interest groups and legislatures, either. How interested the public is in international affairs can make a difference, too, along with how public opinion is aligned to policies. It is important to remember, especially in relation to a state’s foreign policy, that it often reflects its political culture. Henry Kissinger explained American political culture in the following words: “Washington is like a Roman arena [in which] gladiators do battle” (Kissinger, 1982, 421). Other political cultures may be quite different, Asian state cultures, for example.
3. The last level of analysis, the system-level, is focused on the external conditions and pressures that shape a country’s practices and policies (Rourke, 2008, 65). There are specific structural characteristics that are included in system-level analysis: what is the organization of authority? Is the international system anarchical or hierarchical? Further: Is it:

• Unipolar (with only one state as most powerful),
• bipolar (two great powers), or
• multipolar? Additionally, is there a hegemon? Are there international organizations to which some states belong? Are there wars or conflicts going on?

As also understood from the information given, all of the statements in the options with regard to the levels of analysis in International Relations are correct, so the correct answer is E.

Cooperation: Three basic principles address potential solutions to uncooperative relations among countries: (1) dominance; (2) reciprocity; and (3) identity, according to Goldstein and Pevehouse. In dominance, there is a hierarchy, with those at the top of the hierarchy controlling those below them. This is related to an understanding of “great powers” among states. But it can lead to resentment of those not at the pinnacle. If those at the peak of this arrangement do not act in everyone’s best interests, oppression of those lower on the ladder might follow. Reciprocity, on the other hand, addresses the collective goods challenge by rewarding actions that contribute to the group good, and by punishing those behaviors that are simply self-interested. No central authority is needed, but it can demand very complicated accounting methods and monitoring to track positive contributions and negative actions. Reciprocity is relevant to international relations because it forms the backbone of most norms and many international organizations. Reciprocity can have a negative side, too: in the arms race or security dilemma, each state responds to an increase in military materiel and weapons by others. Identity is very complex in today’s world, particularly because shared identities may well ignore state borders and therefore be transnational. Essentially, this principle means that states redefine their interests and make sacrifice for the group possible. Identity groups will accept collective goods solutions that may not give them the best outcome as individuals, because what benefits there are remain in the family.
As also understood from the information given, three basic principles which address potential solutions to uncooperative relations among countries are dominance, reciprocity and identity, so the correct answer is A. The definitions for the other terms in the options are as follows:
Coalitions are sometimes thought of as alliances, especially when states come together against a common threat. Coalition means a joining together. Coalitions are always multilateral (with associates from different states).
Alliances: An alliance can be defined as “an agreement between two or more states to work together on mutual security issues. States enter such cooperative security arrangements to protect themselves against a common (or perceived) threat.

The future of International Relations will undoubtedly include the forces of globalization. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is E. The statements with regard to the future prospects of International Relations in the options can be summarized by using the concept “Globalization”. Many thinkers foresee the development of ways to avoid conflict entirely - or at the very least, minimize it. Some theorists predict that wealth will be redistributed worldwide so that there will be more equity; the international system will not be comprised of “haves” and “have-nots.” Others hope for a decrease in nationalism and an upswing in “cosmopolitanism”, the sense that one is a citizen of the world rather than of a narrower group or affiliation. Some have suggested that cultural diversity will become more tolerated and more understood by greater proportions of the global population, and that this will render some of today’s International Relations theories null. To others, power and selfinterest will no longer dominate international relations as it does today, foregoing the terms of realism, and more liberal and perhaps even idealistic theories will be able to explain a different kind of world than we have today. Huntington’s “clash of civilizations” theory may no longer explain international relations and zones of conflict, or even make sense, as boundaries, difference and acceptance adapt to changing global politics. Humanitarianism may well arise as the leading topic; peoples might become as concerned with the well-being of others who share the globe as they currently are of their own strengths. Certainly, climate change, pollution, and non-fossil-fueled power will continue to be valid issues.
The explanations for the other concepts in the options are as follows:
Coalitions are sometimes thought of as alliances, especially when states come together against a common threat. Coalition means a joining together. Coalitions are always multilateral (with associates from different states). Before, during and post-World Wars I and II, alliances formed and then re-formed, depending on how international conditions were interpreted by various states and other entities. Multilateral coalitions are generally favored in modern times, allying several states together to take on a threat to or concern of all involved, either on the state or international level (consider United Nations peacekeeping missions containing troops from several or many states).
Mutually Assured Destruction: A relationship between two states in which each can destroy the other’s society even after absorbing an all-out attack (or first strike) by the other state. In short, each state has an invulnerable second-strike capability (Griffiths and O’Callaghan, 2002, 201).
Human rights are also equal and nondiscriminatory. “Non-discrimination is a cross-cutting principle in international human rights law. The principle is present in all the major human rights treaties and provides the central theme of international human rights conventions such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.
Power Projection: The capability of a country to project (or, alternatively, physically bring via sealift or airlift) its military power to any part of the world rapidly and with little advance notice. The United States is assessed to be especially good at this, as it has the largest inventory of nuclear weapons and the most high-tech weaponry overall. It continues to lead the world in terms of research on products intended for military use.

International Relations emerged as a formal academic discipline in 1919, just after the end of World War I, with the founding of the first International Relations professorship: the Woodrow Wilson Chair at Aberystwyth, University of Wales (now Aberystwyth University), endowed by David Davies. The correct answer is B.

The first university entirely dedicated to the study of International Relations was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies), which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats associated to the League of Nations.

The United Nations was founded in 1945, immediately following World War II. The correct answer is E.

In 1948, the United Nations General Assembly approved the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The correct answer is D.

E.H. Carr’s The Twenty Years’ Crisis (1939) and Hans Morgenthau’s Politics Among Nations (1948) were formative in the development of realism. The correct answer is B.

Classical liberalism is a political philosophy and an ideology in which primary emphasis is placed on securing the freedoms of the individual by limiting the power of the government. The correct answer is C.

Hedley Bull is one of the most prominent theoreticians of the “English School” of International Relations. The correct answer is A.

The four types of state systems are identified as independent, hegemonic, imperial, and feudal (Viotti and Kauppi, 2013, 53-99). "Dependent" is NOT a state system type.

there is an equally broad group of theories or models through which one can view them: there are theories regarding:

• the arms race
  
• international development and political
  economies
  
• trade and markets
  
• conflict management
  
• peace studies
  
• nationalism
  
• feminism
  
• political culture
  
• international cooperation
  
• civilizational theories
  
• international law
  international organizations
  The correct choice is D.
  

"According to international law, states have a legal personality, a defined territory, a permanent population, and a government capable of maintaining effective control over its territory, and capable of conducting international relations with other states."
The correct choice is B.

Positivism values knowledge based on natural phenomena and their properties and relations as tested and verified by empirical science. Only scientific knowledge, proven through empirical testing, constitutes true knowledge of the world as perceived through the senses.
The correct choice is E.

The four types of state systems are identified as independent, hegemonic, imperial, and feudal.
The correct choice is D.

Reciprocity addresses the collective goods challenge by rewarding actions that contribute to the group good, and by punishing those behaviors that are simply self-interested. No central authority is needed, but it can demand very complicated accounting methods and monitoring to track positive contributions and negative actions.
The correct choice is C.

The political spectrum (from left to right):
Communism
Socialism
Liberalism
Moderate
Conservatism
Libertarianism
Fascism
The correct choice is E.

Amnesty International is a non-governmental organization.
The correct choice is D.

The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years War in 1648 and is regarded as a milestone in the development toward tolerance and secularization.

The term Parsimony conforms with Occam's razor and dictates that any example of human behavior should be interpreted at its simplest, most immediate level.

Statements I-II and IV are related to the individual level of analysis in international relations.

The independent state system consists of sovereign political entities that accept no superior power.

Hegemonic Stability Theory argues that international economic openness and stability is most likely when there is a single dominant state.

Samuel P. Huntington proposed the Clash of Civilizations hypothesis.

The Statements I and IV are true for the Cold War period.

The Truman Doctrine marked the positioning of the U.S.A as an interventionist in faraway conflicts.

Security Apparatus is one of the political and military indicators of the Fragile States Index.

It is the definition of Mutually Assured Destruction in which each state has an invulnerable second-strike capability.