All HR activities from recruiting to compensation have organizational implications and hence benefit from the knowledge provided by the organization theory; organizational development and change are particularly important elements of HR that demand a deep knowledge of organizations and organizing, and organization theory provides content for executive training programs.

Organizations as Machines: This metaphor emphasizes the technical, hierarchical, rational, prolific, mechanical, and productive aspects of organizations. Organizations mostly defined by classical organizational approaches are defined by this metaphor.

Political parties, clubs, and professional organizations are examples of mutual benefit organizations. Individuals tend to participate in these organizations just to make use of their own benefits to the organization. Members of these organizations begin shaping them since their establishment.
Many service organizations are formed not for profit but for offering services to customers in the relevant community. Educational institutions, hospitals, animal protection associations, environment protect associations and various non-profit organizations are examples of these service organizations.

Three important views representing Classical management school of thought are those of F. Taylor, H. Fayol, and M. Weber. The ideas of these three important organization theorists make up the foundation of today’s organization theories. Following are the still used approaches of these authors.

We may basically ground this approach on these four elements:
1. One best way: Organizational issues must be examined through observations and analyses on the scientific base. Owing to this knowledge obtained from scientific methods, it is possible to develop one valid and correct business model for all organizations. A way to make a business effectively and efficiently must be found.
2. Scientific selection of personnel: Even though personnel has certain restrictions, the management can offer necessary training for personnel and improve their capacities. The management must understand what is required for maximum efficiency and offer the relevant training using scientific methods.
3. Financial incentives: Taylor knew that making use of the correct person did not guarantee efficiency and suggested that financial incentives must be used regarding the performance of employees.
4. Functional foremanship: Taylor argued and defended that managers must make plans, while the employees must work according to divided and specialized jobs in direction with this planning.
Environmental and internal concerns are related to contingency theory.

Organization’s Conversion Process
The organization transforms inputs and adds value to them via:
• Machinery • Computers • Human skills and abilities

Formalization: This means concentration on adherence to certain principles and methods while operating in an organization. If what, when, where, how, and who to do something is specified in detail and entitled to follow these, formalization can be regarded as high. In short, formalization is about the organization’s written business definitions, rules, procedures and communications, which include written policies, handbooks, job/business definitions activity guides, organizational schemes, management and technical systems, etc.

It is possible to define organizational technology as a total of technical tools used for transforming inputs into outputs and actions during this transformation process. This is about how the organization offers the service for its customers and produces the product.

Organizational effectiveness indicates that how an organization satisfies the demands of various groups. Effectiveness means an evaluation of the usefulness of an organization’s work and how sources are used during this process and also the level of achieving the result that the organization aims to reach. Efficiency is the criterion for the capability of doing things right during the value creation process and effectiveness is the measure of realizing the plans made beforehand, while productivity means producing an output with the least possible input.

In the present day, organizations operate in an environment where globalization, intense competition, digitalization and innovation take the stage. Organizations that cannot adapt to these changes are not likely to survive.

So many authors have presented their ideas to define existing organizations of our lives. There are so many comprehensive definitions that emphasize different specifics of organizations. One of the most accepted, comprehensive and common definitions is the one made by C. I. Barnard, which argues that “organization is a system of consciously coordinated activities of two or more persons.” This very definition by Barnard is used commonly since it encompasses all organizations with different features. This definition increasingly emphasizes the coordination created among individuals. The common side of all organizations is to act in coordinated ways to reach their aims within a certain frame of aims. As two prestigious names in the field of organizational studies, Blau P.M. and Scott W.R. extend the scope of the definition above and utter these words: “The accomplishment of an objective requires collective effort, men set up an organization designed to coordinate the activities of many persons and to furnish incentives for others to join them for this purpose.” There are many other definitions by various other theorists. The definitions above are common ones, which make us prefer them to include in our text. The reason for this much variety about the definitions of organizations is related to the nature of the organizational structure. Organizations are, by their nature, social structures with a highly dynamic system and intense interaction with the surrounding, which leads to treating organizations with different approaches from different academic fields. Not just organizational theorists, but also theoreticians from sociology, economics, psychology, and politics elaborate on organizations to understand and explain them. Organizational theory field has also drawn a lot from other academic disciplines. Researchers that were influenced by different disciplines and trends within organization theory strived for understanding organizations with differenttheoretical backgrounds, which caused various schools of thoughts to emerge. As also understood from the information given the correct answer is “E”.

In his Images of Organization, Gareth Morgan explains this diversity in the field of organization theory and describes different perspectives on the organizations using metaphors4. He identifies eight metaphors:

1. Organizations as Machines: This metaphor emphasizes the technical, hierarchical, rational, prolific, mechanical, and productive aspects of organizations. Organizations mostly defined by classical organizational approaches are defined by this metaphor.
2. Organizations as Organisms: By this metaphor, organizations relations with their surrounding is emphasized and their taking shape as a result of expectations and demands is expressed. And it is inspired by the general conceptual framework of systems and contingency theories.
3. Organizations as Brains: Learning and sharing information and knowledge are the basic concepts of this metaphor, which emphasizes that organizations also learn from their surroundings just like human beings.
4. Organizations as Cultures: Organizations formed by individuals coming together make those individuals create some values and gather around them. The common goal, vision, and values shared by individuals forming the organizations are defined by social constructionism using this metaphor.
5. Organizations as Political Systems: This metaphor is about the inclusion of organizations in the clash of power and interests and their resting some activities on political moves they make to find funding.
6. Organizations as Psychic Prisons: Organizations involve the unconscious, patriarchal, and repressed sexuality - both destructive and creative.
7. Organizations as Flux and Transformation: Organizations are complex, non-linear, self-organizing systems characterized by contradiction. Chaos and complexity theory explains this perspective.
8. Organizations as Instruments of Domination: Organizations are institutions in which people are alienated, oppressed and exploited, and they have to comply with corporate interests. Marxist studies explain this perspective.

As also understood from the information given the correct answer is “E”.

One of the common classifications based on organizations aims and functions is the one argued by Blau and Scott. As to their argument, we can separate organizations into four basic types on a very simple level.
Mutual Benefit Organization
Raison d’etre of mutual benefit organizations is to increase their members and thus the benefit they have. Political parties, clubs, and professional organizations are examples of mutual benefit organizations. Individuals tend to participate in these organizations just to make use of their own benefits to the organization. Members of these organizations begin shaping them since their establishment. However, when these organizations reach a certain size and become active in their environments, the potential of members to influence them decreases. This kind of organizations is inclined to conflicts. When the needs of members are not satisfied fully and completely, possible and potential conflicts and problems are among the most encountered problems with this type of organizations. That is why the failure rate of these organizations is quite high.
Business Concerns
Business organizations are established with the aim of economic benefit. The fundamental problem of these organizations is operating efficiency and achievement of maximum gain at minimum cost for further survival and growth in competition with other organization. This type of organization has also a high failure rate. Survival and sustainability are other important problems that business organizations handle. In today’s fast-changing business environment, these organizations suffer the pressure of solving problems and learning in flexible and quicker ways. They are also expected to have innovative processes in a time when the competition is really fierce and global. Facebook, HSBC Bank, IBM, General Motors, Turkish Airlines are examples of these organizations. Even though they all differ from each other in terms of their nature, their goal is to survive and make the profit for growth. The main beneficiaries of commercial organizations are their owners or shareholders.
Service Organizations
Many service organizations are formed not for profit but for offering services to customers in the relevant community. Educational institutions, hospitals, animal protection associations, environment protect associations and various non-profit organizations are examples of these service organizations. These organizations are generally funded by small fees, donations, grants, contributions by members, or government assistance. The main beneficiaries of non-profit organizations are customers and communities. Their main problem is the lack of professional management. A professional way of an organization may be costly for such foundations.
Commonwealth Organizations
These organizations, which are basically for social services, are formed to offer standard services for the majority of the population. The motivator of these organizations is not profit. Police offices, army forces, courts, fire services, and other public institutions are examples of these organizations. The beneficiaries of commonwealth organizations are ordinary people in general.
As also understood from the information given the correct answer is “D”. Political parties, clubs, professional organizations are not examples of business organizations, but mutual benefit organizations. On the other hand, Facebook, HSBC Bank, IBM, General Motors, Turkish Airlines are not example of mutual benefit organizations, but business organizations.

Classical Management School
Three important views representing Classical Management School period are those of F. Taylor, H. Fayol, and M. Weber. The ideas of these three important organization theorists make up the foundation of today’s organization theories. Following are the still used approaches of these authors. As the first author of these three, F. Taylor is the founder of scientific management. In scientific management, the aim is to produce more through increasing efficiency. As a way to realize this aim, arrangements in the business level make up the main field of activity. The most focused aspect of these studies is business management and organization. In terms of scientific management, etudes of motion and time are given importance to have productivity. Motion etude is used for determining which motions will make the job. The goal is to get the highest result with minimum labor. Time etude is used for determining the standard time of a job. Thus, necessary performance measures can be conducted. In short, this approach is a management theory that tries to explain how to utilize human resource effectively in routine jobs. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is “A”. Behavioral School following the classical period are known as the micro-organization theory. The contingency theory is the second important approach in modern organization theories and brings a new dimension to the relations of organizations with their environment. The contingency theory that regards the organization as a system argues that only one ever-successful management and organization style is not possible. According to bureaucratic theory, if expanding and growing organizations do not desire to turn out to be inadequate, they must adhere to the ideal bureaucracy structure. The aspects of ideal bureaucracy theory can be summarized as the following six items: A well-defined hierarchy of authority, clear division of work, a system of rules covering the rights and duties of all employees. System approach approach is the one that decides various communication and interaction areas between different units of modern organization and their environment and shows which way to go. The system is an integral structure whose parts communicate and interact with each other.

Following the classical period, studies of the behavioral school’s current representatives are known as the micro-organization theory. The basic contribution of the behavioral school to the classical management theory is the emphasis on the informal aspects of organizations. While the classical management thought tackles the structural and physical design of organizations, the behavioral school focuses on human relations within organizations. The starting point of the behavioral school is the criticism that the classical school was not humanist and it regarded the human being as a machine, which makes it harder to increase productivity. Effectiveness and productivity, too, are at stake in this period. However, the theorists mentioned try to explain that the human being has also a soul. So, the relations and situations within the organization are seen as variables that influence productivity. The most important studies within this field are Harwood and Hawthorne Experiments. Especially, Hawthorne concludes that productivity can only be increased by the emphasis on the emotional side of the human being and on managerial practices that make an employee feel important. In short, human behavior, human relations, motivation, managerial change, and development are the topics examined in this period, which maintained its importance until the 1960s. As also understood from the information given the correct answer is “C”. “The emphasis on the informal aspects of organizations” and “examining human behavior, human relations, motivation, managerial change, and development” are the basic contributions of the behavioral school to the classical management theory. “Tackling the structural and physical design of organizations” is the contribution of the classical management thought. “taking the relationship of organizations with their environment into consideration” and “considering the organization as an open system” are the benefits of systems approach.

According to bureaucratic theory, if expanding and growing organizations do not desire to turn out to be inadequate, they must adhere to the ideal bureaucracy structure. The aspects of ideal bureaucracy theory can be summarized as the following six items: A well-defined hierarchy of authority, clear division of work, a system of rules covering the rights and duties of all employees, a system of procedures for dealing with the work situation, impersonality of interpersonal relationships, selection and promotion based on technical competence. The success of an organization depends on the strict compliance with rules. Arbitrary behaviors and procedures must be routinized and managed. Management principles and approaches to the bureaucratic theory are those aiming at composing the formal structure of organizations. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is “E”. “A well-defined hierarchy of authority”, “Clear division of work”, “”A system of rules covering the rights and duties of all employees”, “Impersonality of interpersonal relationships” and “Selection and promotion based on technical competence” are among the aspects of ideal bureaucracy. “A system of procedures for dealing with the work situation” is the sixth aspect of ideal bureaucracy theory.

Modern approaches have tried to combine the thoughts of the previous schools; and they have additionally mentioned the interaction between organizations and their environments. Three great developments have contributed to the improvement of modern management and organization theories: improvements in system theory, behavioral sciences, and quantitative methods. Modern management theories consist of the two important ones: Systems approach to organization and contingency theory. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is “E”. As the first author of three important views representing classical management school, F. Taylor is the founder of scientific management. Bureaucracy theory, one of three important views representing classical management school, was developed by M. Weber.

According to Gareth Jones, value creation has three stages: Input, conversion, and output. Each stage of the value creation process is influenced by the organizational environment. As also understood from this information given the statement “Each stage of the value creation process is only influenced by the internal organizational factors.” is not correct related to value creation process. On the contrary, each stage of the value creation process is influenced by the organizational environment. Because of the fact that the other statements are correct, the correct answer is “E”. Inputs may be abstract and concrete things such as end products semi-products money, capital, machine and equipment, human resource and knowledge, which are acquired from organizational environments and used as resources during the value-creation process. This value-creation process will also be influenced by how an organization chooses and acquires the inputs. Quality, amount and compliance of inputs, used in the transformation process, must be paid attention to because inputs as the first stage of value-creation process influence the created value. Procedures followed by organizations to transform inputs to outputs are called transformation process. The last element of the value-creation process is output. The products or services offered by the organization following the transformation process make up the output, which may also be input for another organization. Just as the organization offering output acquires the input from an organization, its output may also be used as an input by another one. In this sense, complex value-creation processes of organizations are influenced by their environments.

Daft groups the dimensions of organization design into two basic categories. He sorts structural dimensions as formalization, specialization, the hierarchy of authority, centralization, professionalism and personnel ratios, while he labels contextual dimensions as size, technology, environment, goals and strategy, and culture. These dimensions cannot be dissociated since there is a connection between them and they mutually influence one another. While structural dimensions are about internal features of an organization, contextual dimensions influence a whole organization, which also shape and create an impact on structural dimensions. As also understood from the information given, the correct answer is “E”. Goals and strategy and culture are among the contextual dimensions. On the contrary, formalization, specialization and personnel ratios are among structural dimensions.

Performance generally means the level of work. Effective resource use, productivity, efficiency, profitability or the realization level of similar organizational aims reflect the performance level of a business. Performance is also the level of a work finished or outputs achieved according to certain goals. Organizational performance is the skill for reaching the organization’s aims using the scarce resources in effective and efficient ways and the consequence of an output or work after a certain period of time. Organizational efficiency means reaching and achieving organizational goals. Organizational effectiveness indicates that how an organization satisfies the demands of various groups. Effectiveness means an evaluation of the usefulness of an organization’s work and how sources are used during this process and also the level of achieving the result that the organization aims to reach. We may summarize these three concepts which are very similar to each other as follows: Efficiency is the criterion for the capability of doing things right during the valuecreation process and effectiveness is the measure of realizing the plans made beforehand, while productivity means producing an output with the least possible input. As also understood from the information given the definitions “Organizational efficiency means reaching and achieving organizational goals.”, “Organizational effectiveness indicates that how an organization satisfies the demands of various groups.” and “Productivity means producing an output with the least possible input.” are correct. The correct answer is “D”. The definitions in the options IV and V are not correct. Efficiency is the criterion for the capability of doing things right during the valuecreation process, while effectiveness is the measure of realizing the plans made beforehand.

The history of organization theory studies dates back to 100 years, during which basic fields of interest and approaches have been changed. Today, organization theory still preserves its existence with various focal points. While this theory was about to transform in important ways, it took a completely different turn toward the 20th century and had a wide coverage in American business schools and business studies. The discipline of organization theory became one of the important fields of interest for managers who have to design a dynamic-structured organization within an unstable environment. Value chain management requires that managers interconnect their organizing processes with those of suppliers, distributors, and customers; organization theory not only supports the technical aspects of supply chain and business systems integration, but explains their political, social, and cultural aspects as well. Organizations are, by their nature, social structures with a highly dynamic system and intense interaction with the surrounding, which leads to treating organizations with different approaches from different academic fields. Not just organizational theorists, but also theoreticians from sociology, economics, psychology, and politics elaborate on organizations to understand and explain them. The way information flows through the organization affects work processes and outcomes, so knowing organization theory can help IT specialists identify, understand, and serve the organization’s informational needs as they design and promote the use of their information systems. The correct choice is answer E.

Organizations as organisms: By this metaphor, organizations relations with their surrounding is emphasized and their taking shape as a result of expectations and demands is expressed.
Organizations as brains:Learning and sharing information and knowledge are the basic concepts, which emphasizes that organizations also learn from their surroundings just like human beings .
Organizations as Cultures: Organizations formed by individuals coming together make those individuals create some values and gather around them.
Organizations as Psychic Prisons: Organizations involve the unconscious, patriarchal, and repressed sexuality - both destructive and creative.
Organizations as Flux and Transformation: Organizations are complex, non-linear, self-organizing systems characterized by contradiction.
The correct answer is choice A.

Business concerns: The fundamental problem of these organizations is operating efficiency and achievement of maximum gain at minimum cost for further survival and growth in competition with other organization. Facebook, HSBC Bank, IBM, General Motors, Turkish Airlines are examples of these organizations.
Service organizations: Many service organizations are formed not for profit but for offering services to customers in the relevant community.
Commonwealth organizations: The motivator of these organizations is not profit.
Mutual benefit organizations: Political parties, clubs, and professional organizations are examples of mutual benefit organizations. Individuals tend to participate in these organizations just to make use of their own benefits to the organization. Members of these organizations begin shaping them since their establishment.
The correct answer is choice B.

After the industrial civilization began, structures of production and consumption began changing, too. Production mechanisms shifted to fabrication methods in small size establishments. Achievement of production efficiency came as a result of cooperation, which Adam Smith wrote in detail in his famous book Wealth of Nations (1760). The correct answer is choice D

Three important views of classical management school are those of F. Taylor, H. Fayol, and M. Weber. The ideas of these three important organization theorists make up the foundation of today’s organization theories. Following are the still used approaches of these authors. As the first author of these three, F. Taylor is the founder of scientific management. In scientific management, the aim is to produce more through increasing efficiency. The correct answer is choice C.

According to bureaucratic theory, if expanding and growing organizations do not desire to turn out to be inadequate, they must adhere to the ideal bureaucracy structure (Choice A).While the classical management thought tackles the structural and physical design of organizations, the behavioral school focuses on human relations within organizations (Choice C). The role of a manager in scientific management is to plan and organize the work, while the role of a worker is to fulfill the duties successfully assigned to him/her (Choice D). School of Management Principles contributed to management and organization theory in two important areas. First, this school determined the management functions such as planning, organization, chain of command, coordination, and control that are still valid and important to this day. As a second contribution, this school established 14 principals of management: Division of work, authority, responsibility, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interests, remuneration, centralization, scalar chain, order, equity, stability of tenure of personnel, initiative, and esprit de corps (Choice E). Following the classical period, studies of the behavioral school’s current representatives are known as the micro-organization theory. The basic contribution of the behavioral school to the classical management theory is the emphasis on the informal aspects of organizations. While the classical management thought tackles the structural and physical design of organizations, the behavioral school focuses on human relations within organizations. The correct answer is choice B

Modern approaches have tried to combine the thoughts of the previous schools; and they have additionally mentioned the interaction between organizations and their environments. Three great developments have contributed to the improvement of modern management and organization theories: improvements in system theory, behavioral sciences, and quantitative methods. The correct answer is choice A.

Choice A, B, and C are arguments of scientific management theory and D is argues by the bureaucratic theory. The contingency theory that regards the organization as a system argues that only one ever-successful management and organization style is not possible. The success of organizational structures will change depending on the conditions. This theory especially focuses on conditions, organization’s environment, technology, size, and variables. The correct answer is choice E.

Daft groups the dimensions of organization design into two basic categories. He sorts structural dimensions as formalization, specialization, the hierarchy of authority, centralization, professionalism and personnel ratios, while he labels contextual dimensions as size, technology, environment, goals and strategy, and culture. The correct answer is choice E.

The five strategies to improve organizational effectiveness are making use of human resources, focusing on education and growth, keeping the customers in mind, working on quality services or products and using technology. The correct answer is choice C.

One of the most accepted, comprehensive and common definitions is the one made by C. I. Barnard, which argues that “organization is a system of consciously coordinated activities of two or more persons.”
One of the most accepted, comprehensive and common definitions is the one made by C. I. Barnard, which argues that “organization is a system of consciously coordinated activities of two or more persons.” This very definition by Barnard is used commonly since it encompasses all organizations with different features. This definition increasingly emphasizes the coordination created among individuals. The common side of all organizations is to act in coordinated ways to reach their aims within a certain frame of aims.

In his "Images of Organization," Gareth Morgan explains the diversity in the field of organization theory and describes different perspectives on the organizations using metaphors. He identifies eight metaphors as Organizations as Machines, Organizations as Organisms,Organizations as Brains, Organizations as Cultures, Organizations as Political Systems, Organizations as Psychic Prisons, Organizations as Flux and Transformation, and Organizations as Instruments of Domination. "Beehive" is not among the metaphors he mentions.

"Organizations as Machines" metaphor described by Gareth Morgan emphasizes the technical, hierarchical, rational, prolific, mechanical, and productive aspects of organizations. Organizations mostly defined by classical organizational approaches are defined by this metaphor.

Organizations as Organisms: By this metaphor, organizations relations with
their surrounding is emphasized and their taking shape as a result of expectations and demands is expressed. And it is inspired by the general conceptual framework of systems and contingency theories.

Organizations as Brains: Learning and sharing information and knowledge are the basic concepts of this metaphor, which emphasizes that organizations also learn from their surroundings just like human beings.

According to the "Organizations as Psychic Prisons" metaphor, organizations involve the unconscious, patriarchal, and repressed sexuality - both destructive and creative.

Raison d’etre of mutual benefit organizations is to increase their members and thus the benefit they have. Political parties, clubs, and professional
organizations are examples of mutual benefit organizations. Individuals tend to participate in these organizations just to make use of their own benefits to the organization. Members of these organizations begin shaping them since their
establishment. However, when these organizations reach a certain size and become active in their environments, the potential of members to influence them decreases. This kind of organizations is inclined to conflicts. When the needs of members are not satisfied fully and completely, possible and potential conflicts and problems are among the most encountered problems with this type of organizations.

Business organizations are established with the aim of economic benefit. The fundamental problem of these organizations is operating efficiency and achievement of maximum gain at minimum cost for further survival and growth in competition with other organization. This type of organization has also a high failure rate.

Many service organizations are formed not for profit but for offering services to customers in the relevant community. Educational institutions, hospitals, animal protection associations, environment protect associations and various non-profit organizations are examples of these service organizations. These organizations are generally funded by small fees, donations, grants, contributions by members, or government assistance. The main beneficiaries of non-profit organizations are customers and communities. Their main problem is the lack of professional management.

Commonwealth organizations, which are basically for social services, are formed to offer standard services for the majority of the population. The motivator of these organizations is not profit. Police offices, army forces, courts, fire services, and other public institutions are examples of these organizations. The beneficiaries of commonwealth organizations are ordinary people in general.

Organizations as Machines: This metaphor emphasizes the technical, hierarchical, rational, prolific, mechanical, and productive aspects of organizations. Organizations mostly defined by classical organizational approaches are defined by this metaphor.

Organizations as Flux and Transformation: Organizations are complex, non-linear, self-organizing systems characterized by contradiction. Chaos and complexity theory explains this perspective.

1. Organizations as Machines: This metaphor emphasizes the technical, hierarchical, rational, prolific, mechanical, and productive aspects of organizations. Organizations mostly defined by classical organizational approaches are defined by this metaphor.
2. Organizations as Organisms: By this metaphor, organizations relations with their surrounding is emphasized and their taking shape as a result of expectations and demands is expressed. And it is inspired by the general conceptual framework of systems and contingency theories.
3. Organizations as Brains: Learning and sharing information and knowledge are the basic concepts of this metaphor, which emphasizes that organizations also learn from their surroundings just like human beings.
4. Organizations as Cultures: Organizations formed by individuals coming together make those individuals create some values and gather around them. The common goal, vision, and values shared by individuals forming the organizations are defined by social constructionism using this metaphor.
5. Organizations as Political Systems: This metaphor is about the inclusion of organizations in the clash of power and interests and their resting some activities on political moves they make to find funding.
6. Organizations as Psychic Prisons: Organizations involve the unconscious, patriarchal, and repressed sexuality - both destructive and creative.
7. Organizations as Flux and Transformation: Organizations are complex, non-linear, self-organizing systems characterized by contradiction. Chaos and complexity theory explains this perspective.
8. Organizations as Instruments of Domination: Organizations are institutions in which people are alienated, oppressed and exploited, and they have to comply with corporate interests. Marxist studies explain this perspective.

One of the common classifications based on organizations aims and functions is the one argued by Blau and Scott5. As to their argument, we can separate organizations into four basic types on a very simple level; Mutual benefit organization, Business concerns, Service organizations and Commonwealth Organizations.

Organization theory discipline, which is about modern organizations, mainly emerged in the second half of the 19th century when the industrial civilization appeared.

As the first author of these three, F. Taylor is the founder of scientific management.

Organization’s Outputs: The organization releases outputs to its environment;
• Finished goods
• Servies
• Dividends
• Salaries
• Value for stakeholders

Contextual Dimensions: Size can be used to define not the whole but the part of an organization and it is generally measured by the number of employees.

Organizational Technology
It is possible to define organizational technology as a total of technical tools used for transforming inputs into outputs and actions during this transformation process. This is about how the organization offers the service for its customers and produces the product. The working method and models of the organization is a part of its technology. It is also known that there is a different organizational structure for each kind of technology and a direct relationship between technology and structure.

Some Basic Concepts That Today’s Modern Organizations Challenge
In the present day, organizations operate in an environment where globalization, intense competition, and technological developments take the stage. Organizations that cannot adapt to these changes are not likely to survive. The number of variables for a high-performance delivery, outcompeting and reaching the desired goals has recently increased. Organizations now challenge many more difficulties than they used to in the past. They have to operate in a more complex and intense environment. These concepts faced by businesses sometimes create opportunities for them, but sometimes make the management issues harder. These basic concepts explained below are the constant variables of businesses’ environment.

E is not true for organizations, because some organizations offer products and services at international level, while some of them serve only for the region we reside in. That is why the correct answer is E.

The given explanation belongs to the organizational theory which dates back to 100 years, during which basic fields of interest and approaches have been changed. The correct answer is B.

The given explanation belongs to ‘operations’ which is one of the practical applications of organization theory. The correct answer is C.

The metaphor ‘Organizations as Machines’ emphasizes the given information. Organizations mostly defined by classical organizational approaches are defined by this metaphor. The correct answer is D.

The metaphor ‘Organizations as Flux and Transformation’ indicates that organizations are complex, non-linear, self-organizing systems characterized by contradiction. Chaos and complexity theory explains this perspective. The correct answer is B.

Political parties, clubs, and professional organizations are examples of mutual benefit organizations, not service organizations. That is why the correct answer is A.

F. Taylor is the founder of scientific management theory. The correct answer is C.

Contingency Theory is an important approach in modern organization and it brings a new dimension to the relations of organizations with their environment. This approach completes the given explanation. The right answer is B.

Among the options, B and C might belong to organization’s Inputs, while finished goods and value for stakeholders might belong to Organization’s Outputs. The correct answer is A since human skills and abilities is regarded as a factor in Organization’s Conversion Process.

A,B,C and E are all structural dimensions of organizational design. However, profitability is not one of them. The correct answer is D.

Organizations as Machines: This metaphor emphasizes the technical, hierarchical, rational, prolific, mechanical, and productive aspects of organizations. What is described in the question is the hierarchical aspect of the organization. Therefore, choice (A) is the correct answer.

Choices (a) and (b) are business organizations, (c) is a service organization, and (d) is a mutual benefit organization. However, commonwealth organizations are basically for social services. They are formed to offer standard services for the majority of the population. The motivator of these organizations is not profit. Police offices, army forces, courts, fire services, and other public institutions are examples of these organizations. The beneficiaries of commonwealth organizations are ordinary people in general. Therefore, choice (d) is the correct answer.

The contingency theory brings a new dimension to the relations of organizations with their environment. It regards the organization as a system and argues that only one ever-successful management and organization style is not possible. The success of organizational structures will change depending on the conditions. This theory especially focuses on conditions, organization’s environment, technology, size, and variables. Therefore, choice (b) is the correct answer.

The Behavioral School: The basic contribution of the behavioral school to the classical management theory is the emphasis on the informal aspects of organizations. While the classical management thought tackles the structural and physical design of organizations, the behavioral school focuses on human relations within organizations. The starting point of the behavioral school is the criticism that the classical school was not humanist and it regarded the human being as a machine, which makes it harder to increase productivity. So, choice (c) is the correct answer.

Choices (b), (c), (d), and (e) are among the elements of the scientific management approach. They have nothing to do with input, conversion, and output, which are defined by Gareth Jones as the three stages in value creation. Therefore, choice (a) is the correct answer.

Inputs may be abstract and concrete things such as end products semi-products money, capital, machine and equipment, human resource and knowledge, which are acquired from organizational environments and used as resources during the value-creation process. So, choice (e) is the correct answer.

Professionalism is about the formal education and improvement level of employees. The need for long-term education and improvement implies a high level of professionalism, which is measured by the average study periods of employees. For example, medical doctors in the healthcare sector can be said to have a higher level of education, while the level of professionalism in the construction industry is less high. Likewise, lawyers in the justice sector are said to have a higher level of education, while the level of professionalism in the other occupations listed in the question is less high. Therefore, choice (b) is the correct answer.

Daft groups the dimensions of organization design into two basic categories. He sorts structural dimensions as formalization, specialization, the hierarchy of authority, centralization, professionalism and personnel ratios. So, (a), (b), (d), (e) are associated with the structural dimensions of organizations. He labels contextual dimensions as size, technology, environment, goals and strategy, and culture. Among these, size can be used to define not the whole but the part of an organization and it is generally measured by the number of employees. For example, the size of a factory belonging to a big business can be expressed by mentioning the number of employees. However, there are also other criteria such as total sales, total profit, total production amount and total assets to indicate size. In the given example, too, the number of the students are mentioned to describe the size of these organizations. So, choice (c) is the correct answer.

The concept of “intense competition”, regardless of the sector, has emerged in today’s fast-changing condition, which is more backbreaking than simple competition between companies. Globalization has caused competition to change its structural and dimensional form. The environment of businesses has increasingly become dynamic and the time factor has gained importance. The success of organizations that want to provide a competitive advantage depends on the ability to perceive the change around them and adapt to it quickly. To succeed in the intense competition environment, organizations must decrease their cost of production, increase their quality and exceed high above customers’ expectations. Therefore, choice (b) is the correct answer.

The social responsibility of organizations is to be accountable for individuals, communities, and environment influenced by their activities. This company, too, is environmentally sensitive, so it is careful about its ethical and social responsibilities. Choice (d) is the correct answer.